About Anand

Anand is a veteran of Silicon Valley with development experience and patents that span Processors, Operating systems, Networking and Systems development. Anand has been working for the past few years with Service Providers and large Enterprises developing e and Training systems.
Author Archive | Anand

The Tortuous rode to extending the joys of extending Physical Memory Ranges and Page Sizes

My dear Brethren and Fellow travellers in the land x86 and the Linux Kernel, it is time to come clean on all modes that extend x86 page sizes and physical memory addressing.

So here we go Ka Boom Ka Beem: In 32-bit non-PAE mode, PSE and PSE36 (AKA PSE40), whereby PSE36/40 is a cheap way to get the extended memory addressing for 64GB/1TB, 4K/4M Paging that we created in PSE (Really!) with 32-bit PGDs and PTEs.

In 32-bit PAE mode, the architecture is 32-bit, but the PDPTEs, PDEs and PTEs extend to 64-bit, thereby extending Page sizes to 4K/2M (if PTE is not used), and memory addressing to 52-bits (4PB).

And lastly, but not leastly, we have IA-32E mode (true blue 64-bit architecture), with 48-bit linear addressing, 4K/2M/1G (if PDEs and PTEs are both not used) page sizes, 4PB of Memory addressing, and 64-bit PDPTEs, PDEs and PTEs.

John, did I get it all, and right also, this time ? DID you get the Cigar too ? Haaah ?

We all … must admit to an acute case of x86-itis, so the next post onwards, time to switch gears.  We will start looking next at the various implications to the Kernel of some of these x86-isms for which we have espoused eloquence in this and prior posts.

I will also note that we do do a good job of explaining these concepts in some of our training sessions, this feedback measured by course evaluations, and client (some of which are ISPs) feedbacks also.

I do hope everyone enjoyed this post. Thanks again

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Mitigating the Performance impacts of TLB Flushes on Context Switches

We all know, presumably, that MOV CR3 (the PDBR) is an essential part of the Linux Kernel’s context_switch routing. This is necessary, since the tables may have switched, but the MOV CR3 also flushes the TLB thereby forcing Page Table Walks.

Avoiding TLB flushes on Loads of CR3 are key to avoiding performace hits  on context switches.  In other words, a processor really needs to facilitate the storage of address space caching in the TLB across context switches.

In “pure architectures” (which the x86 is NOT, and for good reason of backward compatibility etc), the PID (Process ID) would have been “hashed” with TLB addressing, thereby avoiding the need for TLB Flushes on context switches. Not so with x86, since the PID is not part/parcel of the x86 Architecture.

Process-context identifiers (PCIDs) are a facility in x86 by which a logical processor may cache information for multiple linear-address spaces in the TLB, and preserve it across context switches.

As we noted above, The processor  retains cached Page-Table  information  when software switches to a different linear-address space by loading CR3, and presumable to a different Process (We ARE executing a context_switch)

A PCID is a 12-bit identifier, and may be thought of as a “Process-ID” for TLBs. If CR4.PCIDE = 0 (but 17 of CR4), the current PCID is always 000H; otherwise, the current PCID is the value of bits 11:0 of CR3. Non-zero PCIDs are enabled by setting the PCIDE flag (bit 17 of CR4).
When a logical processor creates entries in the TLBs (Section 4.10.2 of the x86 prog reference manual) and paging structure caches (Section 4.10.3), it associates those entries with the current PCID (Oh … such a loose association of PCID with PID). Note that this means that where the PGD is located is somehow being interpreted in the  PID “process context”.  When using entries in the TLBs and paging-structure caches to translate a linear address, a logical processor uses only those entries associated with the current PCID, and hence flushes of the TLB  are avoided.

With the x86, my dear brothers and sisters in grief and joy, we take what you can get, and run. In this case, where TLB flushes are avoided for what will turn out to be 99% of the *current* address space, that is more than we can bargain for with Intel. I say.. Good Job Intel.

 

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The Tortuous Road to extending Page Size -and- Memory Size Addressing

When the earth was young, and you were not born, Unca Intel created Real Mode (Read previous article).

Real mode had the capacity to address a whopping 1 MB of Memory (10-bit address space), with each “program” (there were no processes) addressing 64 KB of space (since the registers etc were 16-bits in size. Believe you me, in those days, it was mongo memory. Ah those were the days …

Then came progress, and the first KING of the Microprocessor Family the 80386, and with it 32-bit addressing and 4K paging. Someone had a bright idea at Intel, why not use the 10-bits reserved to index into the PTE as extensions of page-size ? Viola ! And so were born 4M Pages.

However, memory sizes were still set at 4GB (so only 1000 4M pages, no Cigar John !). AND … it will be noted along with 4M Pages came  with no new paging hierarchy.

SO .. the next step was to extend Memory sizes … why not ? 52 bits it was (1 TB PAE, go for it John, what the frig !) with a new paging hierarchy, and we got 4K and 2M Page sizes. Did we hear NEW Paging hierarchy with 64-bit PDEs and PTEs  ?

 

Ouuch. No John, No way, we NEED our cake (OLD Paging Hierarchy with 32-bit PDEs and PTEs) and wanna eat it too (Larger memory Addressing, Larger anyway then 4G).

SO .. we created PAE-36 (36-bit Memory Addressing,  64 GB of DDRx addressing  with the “old yet modified” 32-bit PDEs and PTEs) with 4M Paging

But John, we TOLD YOU really needed LARGER Page sizes AND … Larger Memory. And lets not worry, Just  GO with paging Hierarchy changes , OK ?

And Until, then no kiss-kiss no Bang Bang.

SO .. John created PSE-4M Page sizes with 40-bit Memory (256 GB DDRx Addressing) and called it a Job Well Done. This was the original 4MB Page-Size PSE format extention WHICH was not intended for extending Physical Addresses by using new 64-bit paging hierarchies in the first place, but eventually did wind up doing just so. Amen.

BUT did he not get 1TB memory addressing also ? Thanks for correcting me John. With the new paging hierarchy, (64-bit PDPTEs/PDEs etc) that comes with PA52, Memory addressing extends out to 4TB – 4PB. More than enough for the EXT3/4 file system.And onto extended file systems.

SO then … would one of my esteemed colleagues please enlighten me on the maximum size of a EXT3/4 file system ? And why it is so ? More when we discuss File Systems on this blog. We discuss these concepts during our talks on Linux Kernel Programming Advanced at UCSC-extension, and during the course on Memory Management taught, please note Event Calender on right.

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x86 Segmentation Protection Mechanisms: #1

At the onset, please accept my apologies for the X86 protection mechanisms.

I did not create it. It IS difficult to understand (huge understatement). It IS elegant also (Oucchh). I am merely a messenger that is making an attempt at explaining it. The complaint department on the x86 architecture is with the FBI.. just kidding.

X86 protections revolve around the Current Privilege Level (CPL). CPL is a two-bit field that can take on four privilege levels, 0,1,2,3.

NOTE here please the types of instructions that enable moves between different privilege levels etc.

A future post will follow that describes just how and when the CPL changes, but for now let us take for granted the following: That when x86 processors wake up, they are in in REAL MODE (Give Me Your Real Mode), and CPL is set to numerical “0″. This is the Highest Privilege a x86 processor can operate at, and the Linux Kernel operates at this level. All applications on x86 processors operate at Level 3.

This article focuses on a MOV into a Data Segment register (accomplished with a “MOV DS,AX” for example), and the protection mechanisms associated with that.

Note that a Code Segment CS is “just” another segment register, however a MOV into CS is done with a “transfer control” instruction (CALL FAR, JMP, Software-INT, RET, IRET etc), or an Asynchronous Event (Hardware Interrupt).

In the MOV DS, AX, the AX contains a 16-bit SELECTOR (Bits 1:0), which has a two-bit Requestor Privilege Level (RPL) Value. As explained in an earlier post, the “TI” bit of that SELECTOR has a Table Indicator Bit (“TI”) that is used to select wither the GDT (Global Descriptor Table) or the LDT. The LDT and GDT point to arrays of 8-byte DESCRIPTORs, and one of these DESCRIPTORs is chosen by the SELECTOR to be loaded into the Segment Register DS.

That Chosen DESCRIPTOR has a two-bit (surprise surprise) DPL (Descriptor Privilege Level) field.

SO … the major “players” in Protection Mechanisms are the CPL, DPL and the RPL.

Here, it is important to note the special role that the Segment SELECTOR plays.

In addition to identifying the GDT or the LDT that will be used (as indicated by the “TI” bit of the SELECTOR), and the descriptor itself within the GDT or LDT (as identified by SELECTOR[15:3]), the RPL fiels of the selector plays a role of “WEAKENING” the CPL (Current Privilege Level).

The thinking is that the RPL represents a Privilege level of sorts, and the numerically larger of CPL and SELECTOR’s RPL is the CPL.Effective (Effective CPL) for the purposes of the Segment register Load.

The “MOV DS, AX” (into Segment Register) sets up the memory space that will become accessible to the program doing the MOV DS. The protection check performed (CPL.effective <= Descriptor.DPL) will either enable the MOV DS.

IF the Protection checks fail for the MOV DS, the processor hardware will generate a #GP (General Protection) Fault.

This methodology for Segment register Loads is used, with some modifications, for the gamut of Segment register Loads within X86, wherever they may happen.

“Far” Jumps etc load the Code Segment (CS), when there is a change in Privilege Levels, or on a MOV SS, the stack segment is loaded. On a MOV SS, the protection fault generated on protection failure is the Stack Fault (#SS).

From the above, it become clear that the Kernel has full and complete access to the User Mode memory. This is a capability that is necessary, for example, when in response to a READ system call, the Kernel reads data from Disks (In Privilege Level 0), then copies the Data into User Space (operating in Privilege Level 3). But the vice versa is not true.

Understanding the Linux x86 Server memory model is not possible without understanding x86 Segmentation, the Protection Mechanisms, and the Paging /TLB Mechanisms (To be discussed later).

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LinuxEco Cross-Functional Quiz#1

OK… we have talked of Huge Pages in an earlier blog, and we have referred to Kernel Preemption.

So we know now a Huge TLB Page can be GB sized…. and so therefore it stands to reason that a preemption is involved somewhere in  kernel API hugetlb_fault. Right ? GF-rins.

SO … where is it that the Kernel is Possibly attempting a Preemption  on a page fault on a huge page ? More importantly, WHY would we do that ? Do we dig it now ? Haaaaaah ? Tell me then.

We explain these specific x86 and Linux Kernel features, concepts and more in detail in our class Advanced Kernel Memory Management , the second offering of which is to be made Corporate-direct. We suggest also   the Spring Session 2012 UCSC-Extension Advanced Linux Kernel Programming

Please take note of these and other upcoming Linux kernel training sessions. As always, Feedback, Questions and Comments are appreciated and will be responded to.

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Before the world of Linux Kernel Preemptions: a cooperative world

Kernel preemption tries to ensure fair usage of limited CPU resources. One way to understand kernel preemption is to explore its opposite. i.e. the way it WAS before the 2.6 linux kernel (which is preemptive). Well, the way it WAS .. was a cooperative world: A Process that got the CPU resources was expected to play nine-nine, and let cooperatively hand over the cpu (i.e. at EXIT system call), or the kernel could also, when it switched to user-mode, decide to schedule a new process. Processes were expected to be graceful in letting others use CPU resources.

Processes had to deal with many issues to try to ensure this model “worked”, however in additional to some hard problems created , there are some architectural features that just plumb stall out CPU resources and ensure suboptimal CPU resource usage regardless of whatever processes could have done about it. In other words, Processes do not have visibility into the underlying mechanisms of the operating system / kernel itself.

Linux Kernel preemption ensures what I consider to be somewhat fair (aka somewhat arbitrary) reallocation of CPU resources between more processes with “all the knowledge under the sun” on the underlying “goings on”. As an example, if the Kernel KNOWs the system is taking interrupts at HZ rate (see blog below), then why not try to prioritize between existing processes, and give others a chance to run ? If the Kernel KNOWS a process is to stall on a resource that may take some time to come available…why not put the process to “sleep” and “wake” someone fortunate process up ?

Well.. there are many reasons to NOT do that also (if processes are Real-time processes for example). Or to prevent “lockouts” etc etc

In the end, it boils down to a tradeoff between latency for the lucky few, .vs. throughput for the very many. And all shades in between, with considerations galore: A few of which are listed below->

Explicit and Implicit “Blocking”, Critical Code Section Synchronizations, Network and Block Device Processing Latencies and Throughputs, Interrupt Latencies, “Deferred Processing”, Safety in Preemptability (preventing lockouts because we have preempted tasks that should not have been), and there denials of preemptions / recursive depths of denials, relationships to interrups and recursive relationships to the above, system-programming architectural considerations and requirements (Scheduler Priorities, Classes etc), SMP / Cross Processor considerations, memory management, x86 Architectural considerations in Interrupt Latencies  etc etc

Again, all this is probably a good review for our past students. We explain these specific x86 features, Linux Kernel concepts and more in detail in my classes ( Advanced Linux Kernel Programming @UCSC-Extension), and also in other classes that I teach independently. Please take note, and take advantage also, of upcoming training sessions. As always, Feedback, Questions and Comments are appreciated and will be responded to.

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Linux Kernel Preemptions in the “Interrupt Context”: The x86 Interrupt Descriptor Table IDT

The term Interrupt / IRQ context in the kernel needs to be considered in the context of X86, and the low-level INTERRUPT and FAULT / TRAP handlers. INTERRUPTS are asynchronous events, FAULTS and TRAPS are programmatically generated events (i.e. can be “pegged” to a specific instruction) .

The purpose of this blog is to create an unambiguous delineation between Faults, Traps and Interrupts (COC Change-Of-Control events) . And then  create a lead-in into a future discussion on the implications to the kernel.

The actual entry into the fault handler is based on the Interrupt Number INT# (14 for Page Fault)… so for Page Fault, the index 14 will be used to index into the Interrupt Descriptor Table (IDT), a “gate descriptor is fetched (which has the Offset / EIP of the IRQ Handler). The Gate points to a “target descriptor”, which will have a Segment Selector , which will be used to fetch a Segment Descriptor per the normal mechanisms described in an older blog below the BASE and the OFFSET get added, and we have the Linear Address of the IRQ Handler…..where control will transfer when a COC events occurs.

In the case of an INTERRUPT (not a FAULT or a TRAP), the INT# is returned from the interrupting device, an INT# it was given at the time of device initialization (we will definitely blog on this later) at the time of request_irq, and the process hardware uses that INT# to vector through the IDT Gizmo.

All COCs “push” the  the following x86 state onto the stack: CS (Code Segment Selector.. see Blog below), EIP (Program Counter) and EFLAGS. However,  in the case of an Interrupt, we really dont know which CS:EIP will be pushed onto the stack, it will be the determined by the hardware as to when the INTR pin is raised inside the processor, and which “Instruction Boundary” that INTR is raised.

In the case of the FAULT (for example a Page Fault), the CS:EIP pushed onto the Stack will belong to the Instruction generating the Page Fault (which could be based on the Instruction fetch, Or an Operand Fetch).

In the case of a TRAP, the CS:EIP belongs to the Instruction following the instruction that generated the trap for operands, and to the Instruction itself when the TRAP is generated on an Instruction Fetch.

Now, the entry into the Kernel for all these events, INTERRUPTS, FAULTS, TRAPS etc etc happen through the same IDT, so the Linux Kernel calls them all IRQ events. The entry point into the “C” part of the Kernel (past the Low-Level interrupt drivers in entry_32.S) when preemption may be needed is unified for all these events, and  is preempt_schedule_irq.

However, the state  with which the Linux kernel will enter preempt_schedule_irq will be different based on whether the entry is in the INTERRUPT context or not. For discussion later.  Regardless, an entry into this routine is grounds for a “Preemption”.  Remember, these Preemptions are caused by IRQs.

We will  discuss “non-IRQ” Kernel-induced preemptions later also.

All this is probably a good review for our students. We explain these specific x86 features, Linux Kernel concepts and more in detail in my classes ( Advanced Linux Kernel Programming @UCSC-Extension), and also in other classes that I teach independently. Please take note, and take advantage also, of upcoming training sessions. As always, Feedback, Questions and Comments are appreciated and will be responded to. Cheers  Carlos !

 

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Give me your X86 Mode, make it Real, or else forget about it !

OK… I am talking about my friend Carlos Santana, and also about the difference between x86 Intel Real Mode Addressing and Protected Mode Addressing.

We will hit it up with Carlos later on in this blog. But business first for now, shall we ?

We would like to eventually explore just why .. oh why … Real Mode is limited to 1MB Memory.

And while doing so, also understand x86 “Protected Mode” addressing. We start with an x86 assembly instruction (AT&T syntax, because that is what the Linux Kernel uses), and illustrate address formation at the most important fundamental levels:

movl (%ebp), %eax

Let us look at Protected Mode Address formation first:

In this instruction shown above, We use ebp to form the “effective” address (ebp IS the “effective” address), then we add the “base” from the (default) segment register (DS) to the “effective address” to come up with the “linear address”. Which will be used to look up the TLB to translate into a Physical Address (if Paging is enabled), or the Linear Address becomes the Physical Address if Paging is NOT enabled.

The “Selector” shown IS the value of the “Selector” component of the Segment Register “DS” (Each Segment register has a “Selector” component). In Protected mode, the 3rd-most lsb of the “Selector” is called the “TI” / Table Indicator. It is use to select one of two tables (GDT or the LDT), bits (31:3) then index into the GDT or the LDT, and we come with a 8-byte “Segment Descriptor”.

That “Segment Descriptor” we just came up with has a 32-bit “Base”, which will be added to the Effective Address (which in our assembly instruction, is the value of General Purpose Register EBP), and the net result becomes the Linear Address. And that Linear Address either goes through the Paging Translation to determine Physical Mmeory Address (If Paging IS enabled)…. or IS the Physical Address if Paging Mode is NOT enabled (as determined by the CR0.PG bit)

All of the above applies to x86 Protected Mode. How about “Real Mode” which does not have Descriptors etc or even Paging Mode ?

Well, the Selector (DS) and Register Sizes sizes (ebp) can only be 16 bits in real mode. The “Base” of the descriptor is replaced by the Selector Left-Shifted by 4 (* 16), and that is added to the effective address (bp).

Note that this implies that Linear Address is

And we have just corroborated 60 minutes that x86 Real Mode is limited to 1MB Memory addressing.

Ofcourse Carlos, x86 has now gone to Infinity and Beyond with Huge Pages and 48-bit Linear Addressing. And the Implications are huge also with moving beyond the measly (and respected) 4K Page sizes to 2M/4M/1G Page sizes. We have a blog below on this, and more coming.

As well as with some other key areas, Memory Management plays a key and consuming role in Optimizing for Multiprocessing / Multicore and Multithreaded execution models.

There is no substitute in this regard for our Course Advanced Kernel memory Management. Hit us up on it.

We explain these specific x86 features, Linux Kernel concepts and more in detail in my classes ( Advanced Linux Kernel Programming @UCSC-Extension), and also in other classes that I teach independently. Please take note, and take advantage also, of upcoming training sessions. As always, Feedback, Questions and Comments are appreciated and will be responded to. Cheers !

Take it away Carlos Santana !

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Some of these posts are so friggin hard to read !

That is the feedback I get. Yes, true. Put me on that list also.

This is true even to the initiated. This IS hard stuff. Make no bones about it. The fact that some of these posts may be difficult to read is perhaps one litmus test of the fact that good information is being communicated here.

And also we all learn more when we revisit Kernel topics “100% understood”. No such thing.

These posts are supposed to get the “click” to those that may be thinking on these issues. And to get the interested members of our workforce trained up in the collaborative stupefying complexity that makes up the Linux kernel.

Kernel developers who wish to extend their reach beyond their immediate pales of influence and Systems/Applications developers will be the first-level benefactors. Also, the line between a great Linux System Admin and Systems programmer is beginning to blur..

Additionally, I do hope the following taken in the right light. I am merely being correct when I say that instructive posts such as those posted here are more than what I got when I got stared with Unix, and then Linux. We had to, and still have to struggle, though I will also add the ROI gets better with the years.

Now we have training sessions for the depths of the Kernel itself. We also discuss systems-level issues, and let the discussion go where it may (within the bounds of reason and time allocated to us). This is true with us, and elsewhere also we hope. These training sessions are very helpful, and this info based on student feedback.

Also, in these sessions, it then becomes clear just why an in-person instruction and Q&A may help clarify matters beyond what may be even reasonably or remotely possible in these blogs.

Some of our upcoming posts will deal the overall issues related to MPX / Multithreaded / Multicore systems. And their relationships to the Linux kernel itself. We also have a talk coming up at the Dojo on this topic. Please put in on your calender.

And we will be blogging a bit(! / lot) more on Huge Pages etc…Cheers !

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The linux boot sequence: start_kernel, and there was light

Continuing with our discussion Kernel Boot, start_kernel() is implicit Process 0 (the PID was initialized to zero, lets not go looking for a process 0 with “ps”), AKA the “root thread”, the grand daddy of all processes to come. And the fall-back guy, as we will see.

Process 0 (PID 0, root thread) spawns off Process 1, known as the kernel_init (kernel thread) process, which will /sbin/init as the thread we just created (created, not scheduled to run.. not just yet).

Then the kernel process to start off other kernel processes is created (kthreadd) aka Process 2.

Process 1 (PID 1) could become the idle thread for the CPU when it executes.

Regardless, we then schedule() (we DID create a process or two hopefully). Nota Bene: when the /sbin/init kernel thread was created, we only have Processes 0 and 1 in the run queue. i.e. Process 1 becometh /sbin/init. Per 2.6.32.2 atleast and for awhile now.

As part of schedule(), processes may have pooped out or popped in, so we will probably find something to run, right ? After all we have just gone through, we have a right to expect to have something to run. Grins.

However, in the unlikely event that we (eventually) no-can-do schedule() in or out, then we cpu_idle for as long as it takes to find a process to run. Oh … this time, under the aegis of Process 0, which, by our own definition, is the last man standing. Also which, we are well aware of, cannot be “ps”-ed.

Please do note, a system-specific idle could have been created by /sbin/init, with PID being what we get, since the init thread and its children created could, in principle, have fork-ed till kingdom come.

We did mention that we needed to, and actually did enable/disable, preemption along the way depending on whether we were ready to schedule() or not. Given that we are within the pale of initialization, and memory locations are of origins and values unknown, caution is indeed the better part of valor. So why not apply that principle to thread info’s also ? Right choice.

Such indeed are the joys of Linux Kernel Programming. Grins ?

We explain these specific Linux Kernel concepts and more in detail in my classes ( Advanced Linux Kernel Programming @UCSC-Extension), and also in other classes that I teach independently. Please take note, and take advantage also, of upcoming training sessions. As always, Feedback, Questions and Comments are appreciated and will be responded to.

Thanks

-Anand

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